THE SNOW LION BUDDHIST NEWS & CATALOG

This excerpt from the Introduction to The Treasury of Knowledge, Book Six, Part Three: Frameworks of Buddhist Philosophy, translated by Elizabeth Callahan, gives a sense of the extraordinary range of material covered.

Mahayana
Jamgön Kongtrul opens the Mahayana section (Chapter Five) by distinguishing it from the Hinayana in terms of its view (the realization of the twofold absence of self-entity); its trainings (the six paramitas); its relinquishments (the afflictive and cognitive obscurations); its results (nirvana that does not abide in the extremes of existence or peace); and its seven greatnesses, which are found in Maitreya's Ornament of the Mahayana Sutras. Jamgön Kongtrul begins his systematic presentation of the Mahayana by dividing it into the Paramitayana and the Vajrayana, of which the latter is the subject of Part Four of Book Six. In his overview of the Paramitayana he states that the Paramitayana is the cause-based part of the Mahayana path that leads to the primordial wisdom of buddhahood. In this he contradicts Tsongkhapa's position that final awakening can only be attained through the practice of the Vajrayana. The remainder of Chapter Five is mainly devoted to an eleven-point discussion of the six paramitas: their essential qualities; characteristics; etymologies; divisions and summaries; pure forms; most important types; distinctiveness; ways of training; results; numerical definitiveness; and order. The primary source for this is again Maitreya's Ornament of the Mahayana Sutras.

The next major section on the Paramitayana is a detailed presentation of its philosophical tenet systems, which will occupy the remaining seven chapters of the book (Chapters Six through Twelve). This may be the area of most interest to Buddhist practitioners and scholars, and it is where Jamgön Kongtrul's own views on the tenet systems are most clearly revealed.

Chittamatra
The Chittamatra system (Chapter Six) is treated in three parts: the meaning and etymology of its name, its seven bases, and its classifications (or subdivisions). The opening verse is a concise statement of one of the Chittamatras' main tenets: they assert consciousness to be truly existent. According to Jamgön Kongtrul, this assertion distinguishes this tenet system from Shentong-Madhyamaka. He states that Chittamatras are known as Proponents of Cognition (Vijñaptivadins) and Yogacharas (Yoga Practitioners). It should be noted that Chittamatra is the more commonly used name for this system in Tibet, and that Jamgön Kongtrul also uses the latter two names for the Shentong tenet system (Chapter Eleven).

Whether we call it Yogachara or Chittamatra, the teachings associated with this tenet system are based on the sutras of the third turning of the dharma wheel and texts by Maitreya, Asanga, and Vasubandhu. They include a number of important topics: the eight modes of consciousness (rather than six) and the three characteristics or natures (lakshana, mtshan nyid). Although Jamgön Kongtrul later indicates that he does not regard Asanga's teachings as Chittamatra, his summary of the seven bases, or topics, of the Chittamatra system is based on the ten topics (here condensed into seven) discussed in the ten chapters of Asanga's Compendium of the Mahayana. The first two topics are the source of knowable objects, which is the alaya consciousness, and the three characteristics. The short presentation of the alaya consciousness covers four points: the reasons for positing it; its characteristics; that its reversal is buddhahood; and that it is not a creator, single, a self, or permanent. The positing of the alaya is integral to a Chittamatra presentation. The alaya is the source of all we experience, which is characterized as threefold: dependent, imagined, and consummate.

The dependent characteristic arises from the alaya consciousness, and in its impure state it is called "the imagination of what is unreal." It is mere cognition appearing as the perceived images and the perceiving consciousness. It is called "dependent" because it manifests in dependence upon the force of habitual tendencies. The dependent characteristic is the basis for the designations of the imagined characteristics. Imagined characteristics are simply the names, labels, and notions that are applied to the dependent characteristic. These include the labels "big," "small," and notions of a self or true existence. The consummate characteristic is what exists ultimately: nonconceptual cognition empty of the duality of percepts and perceiver. Jamgön Kongtrul provides the subcategories of the three characteristics that are most well-known to Tibetans: imagined characteristics devoid of any characteristics and nominal imagined characteristics; impure and pure dependent characteristics; and the unchanging and the unerring consummate characteristics.

The classifications section of the Chittamâtra system begins with another concise statement of its tenets: Chittamatras assert that external referents have no existence apart from being mere cognition (vijñaptimatra, rnam rig tsam). They consider external referents to be like the objects experienced in dreams for the following three reasons: First, referents (that is, all appearances) are only mental appearances, like the spots of light we see when we press on our closed eyelids. Secondly, if external appearances were to exist, they would exist for noble beings in meditative equipoise (which contradicts accepted Buddhist tenets). Thirdly, the same external appearances are experienced by different beings in quite different ways: for example, water is regarded as a home by fish, and something to drink by humans.

Given their assertion that appearances are simply mind and that mind (nondual cognition) is real, Chittamatras address the question of the status of these appearances, or what are called images (âkâra, rnam pa), in two ways. Some state that images are either "real" as mind, and others state that they are not; these account for the two main subdivisions of Chittamatra: Proponents of Real Images and Proponents of False Images. Proponents of Real Images are subdivided based on how they posit the relationship between the cognizing mind and the images. The position of those called Split-Eggists is that the perceived objects and the perceiving mind are matching halves. Proponents of Perceptual Parity consider them to be in a one-to-one relationship: one consciousness for each image. Non-Pluralists say that there is only one consciousness, from which and to which many objects manifest. Jamgön Kongtrul's presentation of these subdivisions and their positions is based on Jetari's Explanation of "Differentiating the Sugata's Texts" and Shantarakshita's Ornament of the Middle Way; both texts refute these positions.

Proponents of False Images say that images are not real; it is the force of ignorance and its attending habitual tendencies that cause the appearance of outer images. Those who subscribe to this view consider two issues: Is the mind tainted by images? Do buddhas experience dualistic appearances? The two responses to these issues yield two doxographical divisions: Proponents of Staining False Images and Proponents of Non-Staining False Images. The first are those who state that consciousness is tainted by images and that buddhas, while not being deluded themselves, do experience dualistic appearances. Those in the second category hold the positions that consciousness is not tainted by images and that buddhas do not experience dualistic appearances.

Jamgön Kongtrul then turns to the matter of whose works are considered Chittamatra. He states that although some Tibetans consider Vasubandhu's texts to be the scriptural source for the Chittamatra system, "This is simply the mistake of those who speak deviously by not distinguishing between Vasubandhu's assertion that primordial wisdom is truly existent and the Chittamatra system's statement that consciousness is truly existent." Under the heading, "The Masters Who Assert Chittamatra Positions," Jamgön Kongtrul first recounts the various views of Tibetans, and then introduces his first quotation from Dolpopa. After that, with characteristic brevity, Jamgön Kongtrul states what must be taken to be his own position regarding Chittamatra: "The great exalted one of Jonang and his followers maintain that Asanga and his brother were Madhyamaka masters and that their system of philosophical tenets is the Great Madhyamaka (dBu ma chen po)." If the texts by Asanga and Vasubandhu are not the source of the Chittamatra doctrine, we may wonder, who were the founding masters of the Chittamatra system? Drawing from texts by Taranâtha, Jamgön Kongtrul says that the founders and promulgators of the Chittamatra system were "five hundred Mahayana masters, great exalted ones of earlier times, such as Avitarka, and others. 'Others' means some of their followers and some later Proponents of Mere Cognition (Vijñaptimâtra)."

This chapter concludes with a brief account of why the Chittamatra system is refuted by Madhyamikas. Chittamatras assert that reflexively aware, self-illuminating cognition, or consciousness, that is empty of the duality of percept and perceiver, exists ultimately. Since this constitutes a truly existing substratum, Madhyamikas do not accept it. This, Jamgon Kongtrul says, is the primary difference between the Chittamatra and Madhyamaka systems.

About the authors . . .

Jamgön Kongtrul Lodrö Tayé (1813-1899), a pivotal figure in eastern Tibet's nonsectarian movement, was one of the most outstanding writers and teachers of his time. In his monumental Treasury of Knowledge he presents a complete account of the major lines of thought and practice that comprise Tibetan Buddhism.

Translator Elizabeth M. Callahan has been practicing and studying Buddhism for over twenty-five years. She completed three-year retreat under Kalu Rinpoche's direction, and has been a student of Khenpo Tsültrim Gyamtso Rinpoche's since 1985. She is currently working on long-term translation projects under the guidance of Khenpo Tsultrim and as a fellow of the Tsadra Foundation.

Books by Jamgon Kongtrul Lodro Taye:

• Chod Practice Manual and Commentary
• The Treasury of Knowledge- Book Five: Buddhist Ethics
• The Treasury of Knowledge- Book One: Myriad Worlds
• The Treasury of Knowledge, Book Six, Part Four: Systems of Buddhist Tantra
• Timeless Rapture: Inspired Verse of the Shangpa Masters (compiled)
• The Treasury of Knowledge, Book Six, Part Three: Frameworks of Buddhist Philosophy (available September 2007)